Wind Fences, Domes, and Tree Barriers

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Why this Information Is Important: Coal dust can be mitigated with physical infrastructure, especially wind fences and domes. The City of Newport News has considered a wind fence but has failed to require Dominion Terminal Associates and Kinder Morgan Bulk Terminal to implement dust control beyond the wet suppression system developed in the 1980s. Learn how wind fences, domes, and tree barriers can greatly reduce coal dust and that similar infrastructure solutions are widely used around the world. Understand the proven dust‑control technologies that exist, why Newport News has not required them, and how this information can support advocacy for stronger, modern mitigation at the terminals.

Attention: Residents, activists and advocates, researchers, policymakers

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Wind Fences

  • A example of a wind fence.
    Image: Dust Solutions, Inc. Wind Fence DustTamerTM Systems.[1]

Wind fences reduce windblown dust by acting as a windbreak/barrier.[1][2][3][4] A wind fence is constructed on the upwind side of the source, slowing winds as they pass over the coal staging piles (or piles of similar materials). This causes less dust to be uplifted to the atmosphere and, therefore, carried by winds into nearby neighborhoods.

  • A example of a wind fence.
    Image: Dust Solutions, Inc. Wind Fence DustTamerTM Systems.[1]

Wind fences are made of panels of a variety of porous fabrics[5][6] affixed to steel or aluminum posts. If the storage yard is large, a dust collection mechanism may also be required on the downwind side.[7] Wind fences can be added on top of other barriers, for example, in Richmond, California, where a recent settlement mandated putting a wind fence on top of shipping containers already set in place to serve as a windbreak.[8]

  • Wind Fences Are Widely Used Technology: Wind fences are a common industry technology to mitigate dust around the world. The Repair Lab compiled data on global wind fence use, finding more than 70 facilities that had wind fences to reduce dust specifically for coal or petcoke in the U.S. and around the world.[16] There are also more than 100 additional locations using wind fences for dust mitigation from the storage of grain, dry clay, clinker, paper, gypsum, limestone, construction, copper, nickel, nitrate, soda ash, bauxite, gold, solar, and steel.[16] Companies that construct wind fences include WeatherSolve Structures, Dust Control Technologies, Inc., and Dust Solutions, Inc.
  • Costs Are Negligible Compared to Company Profits: Wind fences are commercially available and can be constructed while the terminals continue to operate normally.[16] Wind fence cost estimates of $4–30 million.[17]
Put into context, Dominion Terminal Associates is a subsidiary of Alpha Metallurgical Resources, which reported $4.1 billion in revenue and $1.45 billion in profits in 2022.[18] Kinder Morgan reported $19.2 billion in revenue and $9.95 billion in profits in 2022.[19] A $4–30 million wind fence is <1% (0.04–0.26%) of their combined 2022 profits and 0.02–0.13% of their combined 2022 revenue.
For a person making $50,000 per year, this is equivalent to $9–64 from one year's wages to protect their community.
Wind fences do not require electricity or a water supply to operate and have minimal maintenance requirements.[20]

Wind Fences as a Solution in Newport News

The City of Newport News has considered installing a wind fence to reduce coal dust impacts in Southeast Newport News, at least while Mayor Joe Frank was in office (1996–2010).[21] The terminals have maintained the infrastructure is too expensive.[21]

In 2011, Dominion Terminal Associates looked reportedly explored the installation of a wind fence, possibly with a city subsidy. According to Rick Cole, then Dominion Terminal Associates president, there were concerns that winds and storms in the area could be too strong. Cole did not comment on the amount of coal dust that would also blow into the community under such severe wind conditions.

"We looked at it and just didn't feel comfortable that it was the right thing to do. It's not unusual here to get 65-mile-an-hour winds in a thunderstorm. I believe one of those fences would have ended up on I-664."
 —Rick Cole, Dominion Terminal Associates President in 2011[22]

Domes

  • Geomtrica, Inc. Freeform Stockpiles Domes
    Image: Geometrica, Inc. Freeform Stockpiles Domes.[23]

A dome is a fully enclosed structure over the terminal, including the coal staging piles and transloading equipment. A dome can be made of aluminum panels and galvanized steel and can be an irregular shape.[23][24] Non-porous fabric domes have also been used,[25] although they are more susceptible to weather damage.[26][27]

  • Geomtrica, Inc. Freeform Stockpiles Domes
    Image: Geometrica, Inc. Freeform Stockpiles Domes.[23]
  • Domes Are Effective: Because domes enclose terminal storage areas, they should contain most if not all coal dust produced through terminal activities.[28] There is limited research demonstrating the efficacy of dome structures for dust mitigation, with most references tracing back to a single U.S. EPA contractor's report, which does not explain key assumptions.[29]
  • Costs Are Negligible Compared to Company Profits: Domes costs vary and are location specific. For scale, costs reports are $200–500 (Geometrica),[32] $330–370 (LF-BJMB),[28] and $70–120 (SAFS Steel Structure)[33] per square meter covered. Domes can be constructed while terminals operate regularly.[23]

Safety Risks

Coal is combustible. Therefore, enclosed coal storage must be engineered for this risk. Domes must be constructed of non-combustible materials, surfaces where dust settles should be minimized and cladding installed underneath the internal structural elements, coal should be kept as dry as possible (sprinklers are not recommended), and the dome must be sufficiently ventilated to prevent methane accumulation.[30]

While risks can be managed safely, there are examples of negligence by terminal companies leading to explosions or fires at coal terminals. In particular, a major explosion occurred at the CSX coal terminal on December 30, 2021 in the Curtis Bay neighborhood of Baltimore, Maryland.[34][35][36] Activists, residents, and health professional in Oakland, California argued against a coal export terminal in their community because of the safety risks associated with fully enclosing coal piles.[37]

Tree Barriers

Vegetative barriers, which are rows of trees and bushes, have been used to reduce dust downwind of coal mines and other sources.[38] Tree barriers are more effective when trees are fully grown, with a barrier of fully-grown trees in one location measured to lowered PM10 concentrations by 30–40%.[15][39] Multiple rows of trees are more effective than one or two rows, with the type of tree species planted also having an influence.[38] It stands to reason that vegetative barriers are more effective during seasons when there are leaves than in winter.

Funds and labor are required not only for tree planting but also for tree maintenance.

Resources and Materials: See for Yourself and Dig Deeper

Reasonably Available Control Measures for Fugitive Dust Sources (Part 1), Ohio Office of Air Pollution Control, September 1980

Reasonably Available Control Measures for Fugitive Dust Sources (Part 2), Ohio Office of Air Pollution Control, September 1980

Reasonably Available Control Measures for Fugitive Dust Sources (Part 3), Ohio Office of Air Pollution Control, September 1980

Reasonably Available Control Measures for Fugitive Dust Sources (Part 4), Ohio Office of Air Pollution Control, September 1980

Cowherd et al., Control of Open Fugitive Dust, Final Report to the U.S. EPA, September, 1988

Clift, What's in Air in the City's Southeast?, Daily Press, June 3, 2015

City Planning Commission Meeting Minutes, City of Newport News, May 2, 2018

Repair Lab, Coal Dust in Southeast Newport News is a Nuisance and There Are Solution (Corrected), August 2024

Wind Fences

Billman et al., Windbreak Effectiveness for Storage-Pile Fugitive-Dust Control: A Wind Tunnel Study, U.S. EPA, 1985

Billman et al., Windbreak Effectiveness for Storage Pile Fugitive Dust Control: A Wind Tunnel Study, JAPCA, 38, 135–143, 1988

Chen et al., 3D Numerical Simulation of Wind Flow behind a New Porous Fence, Powder Technology, November 2012

Energy Supply Effort Spells Out 'How We Do Business', Xcel Energy, 6–7, November 2012

Larson, Fugitive Dust Mitigation Solutions for Coal Stockpiles, Power, September 1, 2015

Bhowmick et al., Three-Dimensional Modeling of Fugitive Dust Dispersion in Idealized Openpit Mines, Mining Engineering, 2015

Badani Prado, Coal Quality Management Model for a Dome Storage (DS-CQMM), Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports, 5138, 2015

Jha et al., Handle with Care: The Local Air Pollution Costs of Coal Storage, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series, May, 2017

Jha, Even When It’s Sitting in Storage, Coal Threatens Human Health, The Conversation, September 13, 2017

An Impressive Wind Fence to Prevent Coal Dust Pollution is under Construction on Krievu Island, Freeport of Riga, August 30, 2018

Kireeva et al., The Murmansk Commercial Seaport Seeks to Fence in Clouds of Coal Dust, Bellona, September 20, 2018

Minutes from the Plan Commission Meeting, City of Oak Creek, Wisconsin, February 12, 2019

Durian, WE Energies to Build Wind Barrier in Hopes of Eliminating Coal Dust, TMJ4 WTMJ-TV Milwaukee, February 12, 2019

Hanley,We Energies to Build Large Windscreen to Combat Coal Dust Issue in Oak Creek, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, February 13, 2019

Kireeva et al., Murmansk Port Hopes Huge Screens Will Trap Coal Dust, The Maritime Executive, April 11, 2019

Using Agglomerative Dust Suppression and Wind Breaks for Fugitive Dust Abatement, Australian Mine Safety Journal, April 17, 2019

Anderson, Oak Creek Neighbors Renew Coal Dust Concerns after Fence Falls, Racine County Eye, January 24, 2020

Productive Environments for All Weathers, WeatherSolve Structures, 2020

Kim et al., Estimating Fugitive Particle Emission from Coal Storage Yard of Thermal Power Plant Using the Flux-Gradient Method, Atmospheric Environment, December 2020

Wind Fence DustTamer, Dust Solutions Inc, 2020

Settlement Agreement between the City of Richmond, California, and the City Council of the City of Richmond and Levin Richmond Terminal Corporation, Richmond Pacific Railroad Corporation, and Levin Enterprises, Inc., Wolverine Fuels Sales, LLC, Phillips 66 Company, and the State of Utah, 2021

Coal Ports Are in Operation Around the World, WeatherSolve Structures, January 26, 2021

Coal Stockpiles and BTU Losses, WeatherSolve Structures, June 7, 2021

Soares et al., Wind-Fence Efficiency Controlling Particulate Matter Emissions from Coal Stockpiles in an Industrial Site, IEEE, 2021

Fugitive Dust Control Measures and Best Practices, U.S. EPA, January, 2022

BHP, BHP Awards Contract for Australian-First Wind Fences in Port Hedland, June 1, 2022

Almeida, Let's Face it Coal is Dirty, Gomantak Times, February 11, 2023

Email Correspondence between Mike Robinson of WeatherSolve and Repair Lab Team Member, 2023

Email Correspondence between Richard Posner of Dust Solutions, Inc. and Repair Lab Team Member, 2023

Mining Dust Control and Suppression Solutions for the Mining Industry, Mining Technology, Undated

Wind Fencing Gallery, Dust Control Technologies, Inc., Undated

Wind Fence Dusttamer™ Systems, Dust Solutions, Inc., Undated

Comanche's Coal Pile Wind Fence, American Galvanizers Association, Undated

Domes

Holland, ADM Officials Discuss Coal Dome, September 1, 2006

Monolithic Dome Petroleum Coke Storages with Video of Petcoke Cloud, Monolithic Dome, June 5, 2014

Bulk Storage Brochure, Geometrica, Inc., 2014

Rowland, Under the (Storage) Dome, World Coal, September 10, 2015

Aneke, et al., Energy Storage Technologies and Real Life Applications–A State of the Art Review, Applied Energy, 179, 350–377, 2016

Four Reasons a Dome is a Worthy Solution for Coal Storage, Dome Technology, January 15, 2019

Hou et al., Investigation of Natural Ventilation Performance of Large Space Circular Coal Storage Dome, Building Simulation, 14, 1077–1093, 2021

Cesari et al., Analysis of the Contribution to PM10 Concentrations of the Largest Coal-Fired Power Plant of Italy in Four Different Sites, Atmospheric Pollution Research, 12, 3, 101135, 2021

Woo et al., Reducing Environmental Impact of Coal-Fired Power Plants by Building an Indoor Coal Storage: An Economic Analysis, Energies, 16, 1, 511, 2023

Notes on Email Correspondence between Gary Clark of Monolithic Dome and Repair Lab Team Member, February 20, 2024

Notes on Email Correspondence between Hilda Hu (Sales Manager) of SAFS Steel Solutions and Repair Lab Team Member, February 22, 2024

Notes on Email Correspondence between Michelle Team of LF-BJMB and Repair Lab Team Member, March 3, 2024

CST Covers: Dry Bulk Storage Systems, CST Industries, Undated

The Global Leader in Storage and Covers Solutions, CST Industries, Undated

ADM Coal Storage—Clinton, Iowa with Gallery, Dome Technology, Undated

ADM Coal Storage—Clinton, Iowa with Scope of Work and Overview, Dome Technology, Undated

Hulusu Coal Mine—Coal Bulk Storage—China, Dome Technology, Undated

Hulusu Coal Mine—Coal Bulk Storage—China with Scope of Work and Overview, Dome Technology, Undated

Kemper County Power Plant—Lignite Coal Bulk Storage—United States, Dome Technology, Undated

Kemper County Power Plant—Lignite Coal Bulk Storage—United States with video, Dome Technology, Undated

Making History—Bocamina Coal Cover, Geometrica, Inc., Undated

Quayside Storage Domes, Geometrica, Inc., Undated

Power Generation: Tai Power's Four Massive Silos, Geometrica, Inc., Undated

Covers For Coal Yards In Varying Shapes and Sizes, Geometrica, Inc., Undated

The Domes of Asia, Geometrica, Inc., Undated

Coal Storage Domes Booklet, Geometrica, Inc., Undated

Combat Dust—Cover Your Stockpile, Geometrica, Inc., Undated

Coal Storage, Circular, Longitudinal or Free-Form Domes, Flickr (80-plus photographs), Geometrica, Inc., Undated

Coke Storage Domes, Los Angeles Export Terminal, San Pedro, California (Completed in 1999), LAXT OPAC Consulting Engineers, Undated

OPAC Consulting Engineers, Pittsburg Coke Storage Domes, Pittsburg Marine Terminal, Pittsburg, California, Undated

Pittsburg Coke Storage Domes, Google Earth, Undated

Qingtongxia Aluminum Power Generation Fully Enclosed Coal Shed, SAFS Steel Structure, Undated

Tree Barriers

Fugitive Dust Background Document and Technical Information Document for Best Available Control Measures, U.S. EPA, September 1992

Visit Next

The Front Porch and Community Action

Have a question? Want to start a conversation or share an observation? Join the discussion: Front Porch

Do you have photographs or stories to add to this page? Add Your Voice

You can also email the Repair Lab at editor@voicesinthedust.org or call, text, or send a voice memo to (757) 317-0356. If you prefer, a Repair Lab team member can record your story in person or collect physical materials to digitize and then return them to you.

Make an Official Complaint

You can make an official complaint to the VA DEQ Tidewater Office through myDEQ portal or by calling (757) 518-2000.

You can also register a complaint with the U.S Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Region 3 Office ECHO tool, which allows video and photographic evidence to be uploaded as part of an observed violation.

Note, these websites might change. Voices in the Dust will try to keep this contact information up to date. However, if a link is broken, you can likely find the new page through a web search of the above information.

Sources

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Wind Fence Dusttamer™ Systems, Dust Solutions Inc., Undated.
  2. ↑ Fugitive Dust Control Measures and Best Practices, U.S. EPA, January, 2022.
  3. ↑ Wind Fence Types and Effects, WeatherSolve, Undated.
  4. ↑ Wisconsin, Minutes from the Plan Commission Meeting, City of Oak Creek, February 12, 2019.
  5. ↑ Wind Fence Fabric – Which One's Right for You, WeatherSolve Structures, Undated.
  6. ↑ Fabric Information for Windbreak/Windfence, WeatherSolve Structures, Undated.
  7. ↑ Email Correspondence between Mike Robinson of WeatherSolve and Repair Lab Team Member, 2023.
  8. ↑ Settlement Agreement between the City of Richmond, California, and the City Council of the City of Richmond and Levin Richmond Terminal Corporation, Richmond Pacific Railroad Corporation, and Levin Enterprises, Inc., Wolverine Fuels Sales, LLC, Phillips 66 Company, and the State of Utah, 2021.
  9. ↑ Cong et al., Impact of the Installation Scenario of Porous Fences on Wind-Blown Particle Emission in Open Coal Yards, Atmospheric Environment, 45, 30, 2011.
  10. ↑ Cong et al., Field Measurements of Shelter Efficacy for Installed Wind Fences in the Open Coal Yard, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 117, 2013.
  11. ↑ Park et al., Verification of the Shelter Effect of a Windbreak on Coal Piles in the POSCO Open Storage Yards at the Kwang-Yang Works, Atmospheric Environment, 36, 13, 2002.
  12. ↑ Stunder et al., Windbreak Effectiveness for Storage Pile Fugitive Dust Control: A wind Tunnel Study, JAPCA, 38, 2, 1988.
  13. ↑ Torno et al., Experimental and Numerical Study of Fence Effects on Dust Emission into Atmosphere from Open Storage Piles, Journal of Central South University, 18, 2011.
  14. ↑ Productive Environments for All Weathers, WeatherSolve Structures, 2020.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Reasonably Available Control Measures for Fugitive Dust Sources, Ohio Office of Air Pollution Control, September 1980.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Coal Dust in Southeast Newport News is a Nuisance and There Are Solution (Corrected), Repair Lab, August 2024.
  17. ↑ Email Correspondence between Mike Robinson of WeatherSolve and Repair Lab Team Member, 2023.
  18. ↑ United States Securities and Exchange Commission Form 10-K for Alpha Metallurgical Resources, Inc., December 31, 2022.
  19. ↑ Kinder Morgan Revenue 2010–2025 | KMI, Undated.
  20. ↑ Coal Ports Are in Operation Around the World, WeatherSolve Structures, January 26, 2021.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 City Planning Commission Meeting Minutes, City of Newport News, May 2, 2018
  22. ↑ Clift, What's in Air in the City's Southeast? Daily Press, June 3, 2015.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 Covers For Coal Yards In Varying Shapes and Sizes, Geometrica, Inc., Undated.
  24. ↑ Aneke, et al., Energy Storage Technologies and Real Life Applications – A State of the Art Review, Applied Energy, 179, 350–377, 2016.
  25. ↑ W. Va. Town Divided Over Coal Plant Suit, MRT, January 23, 2003.
  26. ↑ Winds Shred Dome at Boone County Coal Operation, The Associated Press, Charleston Gazette-Mail, March 1, 2012.
  27. ↑ Downed Dome, Again, Ohio Valley Environmental Coalition, March 2, 2012.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Notes on Email Correspondence between Michelle Team of LF-BJMB and Repair Lab Team Member, March 3, 2024.
  29. ↑ cite
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Coal and Pet-coke: The Largest Fuel Stockpiles Can Now Be Covered, Geometrica, Inc., Undated.
  31. ↑ CST Covers: Dry Bulk Storage Systems, CST Industries, Undated.
  32. ↑ Email correspondence between a Repair Lab team member and Fernanda Sanchez of Geometrica, who said: "Regarding the costs, these vary greatly as our designs are customized for each project. They can go from USD $200 to more than $500 per square meter covered." August 1, 2023.
  33. ↑ Notes on Email Correspondence between Hilda Hu (Sales Manager) of SAFS Steel Solutions and Repair Lab Team Member, February 22, 2024.
  34. ↑ Shen, Long before Today’s Explosion, Curtis Bay Residents Complained about Black Grit from the CSX Coal Terminal, Baltimore Brew, December 30, 2021.
  35. ↑ Kazanjian, CSX Coal Explosion Impacted a Large Swath of Residential Curtis Bay, Report Finds, Baltimore Brew, August 27, 2022.
  36. ↑ Mosbrucker, One Year Later: A South Baltimore Community’s Quest for ‘No More Coal’, WYPR News, December 30, 2022.
  37. ↑ An Assessment of the Health and Safety Implications of Coal Transport through Oakland, Public Health Advisory Panel on Coal in Oakland, California, June 14, 2016.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Korean Air Grows Forest in Mongolia, The Korea Herald, September 3, 2023.
  39. ↑ Přikryl, Estimate of Vegetation Efficiency on Reducing Dust Concentration Produced by a Surface Coal Mine. In: Programs and Algorithms of Numerical Mathematics, Proceedings of Seminar, Institute of Mathematics CAS, Prague, 132–139, 2019.
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