Wind Fences, Domes, and Tree Barriers: Difference between revisions

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Coal dust can be effectively mitigated with infrastructure, in particular, wind fences and domes, which are used in hundreds of locations across the U.S. and around the world. The negative impacts of coal dust on residents and their property are preventable. Wind fences and domes are commercially available from multiple companies, can be installed while terminals continue their regular operations, and cost a fraction of a percent of the profits of Alpha Metallurgical Resources (Dominion Terminal Associates is their subsidiary) and Kinder Morgan.
[[Particulate matter and coal dust|Coal dust]] can be effectively mitigated with infrastructure, especially wind fences and domes. Wind fences and domes are used in hundreds of locations across the U.S. and around the world. They cost a fraction of a percent of the profits of the companies that operate the coal terminals in Hampton Roads.<ref name=":1">Repair Lab, [[:File:Wind Fences and Domes Report Repair Lab 2024 (corrected).pdf|Coal Dust in Southeast Newport News Is a Nuisance and There Are Solutions (Corrected)]], August 2024.</ref>


== Wind Fences ==
== Wind Fences ==
[[File:Dust Solutions, Inc. DustTamer Wind Fence Solutions.jpg|alt=Dust Solutions, Inc. DustTamer Wind Fence Solutions|thumb|300x300px|Dust Solutions, Inc. Wind Fence DustTamer<sup>TM</sup> Systems<ref name=":2" />]]
Wind fences reduce windblown [[Particulate matter and coal dust|dust]], also known as [[Particulate matter and coal dust|fugitive dust]],<ref>U.S. EPA, [[:File:Fugitive-dust-control-best-practices.pdf|Fugitive Dust Control Measures and Best Practices]], January, 2022.</ref> by acting as a windbreak.<ref>WeatherSolve, [https://www.weathersolve.com/our-resources/wind-fence-types-and-effects/ Wind Fence Types and Effects].</ref><ref name=":2">Dust Solutions Inc., [https://nodust.com/solutions/wind-fence/ Wind Fence Dusttamer™ Systems].</ref><ref>City of Oak Creek, [[:File:021219 Plan Commission Minutes.pdf|Wisconsin, Minutes from the Plan Commission Meeting]], February 12, 2019.</ref> A wind fence is constructed on the upwind side of the source, slowing winds as they pass over the coal storage piles (or similar materials). This causes less dust to be uplifted to the atmosphere and, therefore, carried by winds into adjacent neighborhoods.
Wind fences are made of panels of a variety of porous fabrics<ref>WeatherSolve Structures, [https://www.weathersolve.com/our-resources/fabric-which-ones-right-for-you/ Wind Fence Fabric – Which One's Right for You].</ref><ref>WeatherSolve Structures, [https://www.weathersolve.com/our-resources/fabric-information-for-windbreak-windfence/ Fabric Information for Windbreak/Windfence].</ref> affixed to steel or aluminum posts. If the storage yard is large, a dust collection mechanism may also be required on the downwind side.<ref>[[:File:Notes on email correspondence between Mike Robinson of WeatherSolve and Repair Lab team member.pdf|Email Correspondence between Mike Robinson of WeatherSolve and Repair Lab Team Member]], 2023.</ref> Wind fences can be added on top of other barriers, for example, in Richmond, California, where a recent settlement mandated putting a wind fence on top of shipping containers that were set in place to serve as a windbreak.<ref>[[:File:Richmond Settlement Agreement and Exhibits-all signatures.pdf|Settlement Agreement between the City of Richmond, California, and the City Council of the City of Richmond and Levin Richmond Terminal Corporation, Richmond Pacific Railroad Corporation, and Levin Enterprises, Inc., Wolverine Fuels Sales, LLC, Phillips 66 Company, and the State of Utah]], 2021.</ref>
'''Wind fences are effective:''' Wind fences have been shown to reduce dust emissions by 70–86% on average.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Cong et al., [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1352231011007060 Impact of the Installation Scenario of Porous Fences on Wind-Blown Particle Emission in Open Coal Yards], ''Atmospheric Environment'', 45, 30, 2011.</ref><ref>Cong et al., [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0167610513000755 Field Measurements of Shelter Efficacy for Installed Wind Fences in the Open Coal Yard], ''Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics'', 117, 2013.</ref><ref>Park et al., [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1352231002001954 Verification of the Shelter Effect of a Windbreak on Coal Piles in the POSCO Open Storage Yards at the Kwang-Yang Works], ''Atmospheric Environment'', 36, 13, 2002.</ref><ref>Stunder et al., [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08940630.1988.10466360 Windbreak Effectiveness for Storage Pile Fugitive Dust Control: A wind Tunnel Study], ''JAPCA'', 38, 2, 1988.</ref><ref>Torno et al., [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11771-011-0712-8 Experimental and Numerical Study of Fence Effects on Dust Emission into Atmosphere from Open Storage Piles], ''Journal of Central South University'', 18, 2011.</ref><ref>WeatherSolve Structures, [[:File:Dust-and-wind-brochure.pdf|Productive Environments for All Weathers]], 2020.</ref> While wind fences reduce windblown dust, they have less impact on fugitive dust from other disturbances to the coal piles such as transloading and dust emitted from vehicle traffic within the terminal.<ref name=":6">Ohio Office of Air Pollution Control, [[:File:RACM1.pdf|Reasonably Available Control Measures for Fugitive Dust Sources]], September 1980.</ref>
'''Wind fences are widely used technology:''' Wind fences are a common industry technology to mitigate dust around the world. The Repair Lab compiled data on global wind fence use, finding more than 70 locations were using wind fences to reduce dust specifically for coal or petcoke in the U.S. and globally.<ref name=":1" /> There are also more than 100 additional locations using wind fences for dust mitigation from the storage of grain, dry clay, clinker, paper, gypsum, limestone, construction, copper, nickel, nitrate, soda ash, bauxite, gold, solar, and steel.<ref name=":1" /> Companies that construct wind fences include [https://www.weathersolve.com/dust-solutions/?gad_source=1&gad_campaignid=9610715022&gbraid=0AAAAACdNvR7ejEKwMag1dlLWaoKpxiMxl&gclid=Cj0KCQjw0LDBBhCnARIsAMpYlAowpgzl4bIzxDSTVaJ0DUWu-SNlRlcpV_lj0y30HUjiUvEzq9a6vGQaAuUNEALw_wcB WeatherSolve Structures], [https://dustcontroltech.com/products/industrial-wind-fences Dust Control Technologies, Inc.], and [https://nodust.com/solutions/wind-fence/ Dust Solutions, Inc].
'''Costs are negligible compared to company profits:''' Wind fences are commercially available and can be constructed while the terminals continue to operate normally.<ref>[[:File:Notes on email correspondence between Richard Posner of Dust Solutions.pdf|Email Correspondence with Richard Posner, President of Dust Solutions Inc.]], 2023.</ref> Wind fence cost estimates of $4–30 million.<ref>[[:File:Notes on email correspondence between Mike Robinson of WeatherSolve and Repair Lab team member.pdf|Email Correspondence between Mike Robinson of WeatherSolve and Repair Lab Team Member]], 2023.</ref>
Put into context, Dominion Terminal Associates is a subsidiary of Alpha Metallurgical Resources, which reported $4.1 billion in revenue and $1.45 billion in profits in 2022.<ref>[https://fintel.io/doc/sec-alpha-metallurgical-resources-inc-1704715-10k-2023-february-23-19412-7529 United States Securities and Exchange Commission Form 10-K for Alpha Metallurgical Resources, Inc.], December 31, 2022.</ref> Kinder Morgan reported $19.2 billion in revenue and $9.95 billion in profits in 2022.<ref>[https://www.macrotrends.net/stocks/charts/KMI/kinder-morgan/revenue Kinder Morgan Revenue 2010–2025 | KMI].</ref> A $4–30 million wind fence is <1% (0.04–0.26%) of their combined 2022 profits and 0.02–0.13% of their combined 2022 revenue.
For a person making $50,000 per year, this is equivalent to $9–64 from one year's wages to protect their community.
Wind fences do not require electricity or a water supply to operate and have minimal maintenance requirements.<ref>WeatherSolve Structures, [https://www.weathersolve.com/dust-solutions-coal-ports/ Coal Ports Are in Operation Around the World], January 26, 2021.</ref>


== Domes ==
== Domes ==
[[File:Geomtrica, Inc. Freeform Stockpiles Domes.jpg|alt=Geomtrica, Inc. Freeform Stockpiles Domes|thumb|Geometrica, Inc. Freeform Stockpiles Domes<ref name=":4" />]]
A dome is a fully enclosed structure over the terminal, including the coal storage piles and transloading equipment. A dome can be made of aluminum panels and galvanized steel and can be an irregular shape.<ref name=":4">Geometrica, Inc., [https://www.geometrica.com/en/latestnews/coal-yards Covers For Coal Yards In Varying Shapes and Sizes].</ref><ref>Aneke, et al., [[:File:2016 05 05 MA Modified Manuscript NotMarked.pdf|Energy Storage Technologies and Real Life Applications – A State of the Art Review]], ''Applied Energy'', 179, 350–377, 2016.</ref> Non-porous fabric domes have also been used,<ref>[https://www.mrt.com/news/article/W-Va-Town-Divided-Over-Coal-Plant-Suit-7777049.php W. Va. Town Divided Over Coal Plant Suit], ''MRT'', January 23, 2003.</ref> although they are more susceptible to weather damage.<ref>The Associated Press, [https://www.wvgazettemail.com/news/winds-shred-dome-at-boone-county-coal-operation/article_0a357589-aa6d-5d32-80fe-33271de5bff2.html Winds Shred Dome at Boone County Coal Operation], Charleston Gazette-Mail, March 1, 2012.</ref><ref>Ohio Valley Environmental Coalition, [https://ohvec.org/downed-dome-again/ Downed Dome, Again], March 2, 2012.</ref>
'''Domes''' '''are effective:''' Because domes enclose terminal storage areas, they should contain most if not all coal dust produced through terminal activities.<ref name=":5" /> There is limited research demonstrating the efficacy of dome structures for dust mitigation, with most references tracing back to a single U.S. EPA contractor’s report, which does not explain key assumptions.<ref>cite</ref>
'''Domes are widely-used:''' Domes are a common technology for industrial bulk storage. Domes are used specifically for coal or petcoke storage in at least 19 locations in the U.S. and globally. Domes are also used in over 100 locations that include power plants, grain dealers, mines, cement plants, ports, and other industries which stock large quantities of dry bulk materials.<ref name=":1" /> Companies that construct domes include [https://www.geometrica.com Geometrica, Inc.],<ref name=":3">Geometrica, Inc., [https://www.geometrica.com/en/coalandpetcoke Coal and Pet-coke: The Largest Fuel Stockpiles Can Now Be Covered].</ref> [https://www.cstindustries.com/coal-storage-silos-manufacturer/ CST Industries],<ref>CST Industries, [[:File:Covers-Bulk-Materials-Brochure.pdf|CST Covers: Dry Bulk Storage Systems]].</ref> [https://www.dometechnology.com/applications/coal/ Dome Technology], [https://www.safsteelstructure.com/dome-coal-storage-system/ SAFS Steel Structure], [https://www.monolithic.org/storages Monolithic Dome], [https://www.lfspaceframe.com/dome-coal-storage-system-of-zhangzhou-houshi-power-plant-7-sets/ LF-BJMB], and [https://domes.com World Domes (DOMTEC)].   
'''Costs are negligible compared to company profits:''' Domes costs vary and are location specific. For scale, costs reports are $200–500 (Geometrica),<ref>Email correspondence between a Repair Lab team member and Fernanda Sanchez of Geometrica, who said: “Regarding the costs, these vary greatly as our designs are customized for each project. They can go from USD $200 to more than $500 per square meter covered.” August 1, 2023.</ref> $330–370 (LF-BJMB),<ref name=":5">[[:File:Notes on email correspondence between Michelle Team.pdf|Notes on Email Correspondence between Michelle Team of LF-BJMB and Repair Lab Team Member]], March 3, 2024.</ref> and $70–120 (SAFS Steel Structure)<ref>[[:File:Notes on email correspondence between Hilda Hu.pdf|Notes on Email Correspondence between Hilda Hu (Sales Manager) of SAFS Steel Solutions and Repair Lab Team Member]], February 22, 2024.</ref> per square meter covered. Domes can be constructed while terminals operate regularly.<ref name=":4" />
'''Safety:''' Coal is combustible. Therefore, enclosed coal storage must be engineered for this risk. Domes must be constructed of non-combustible materials, surfaces where dust settles should be minimized and cladding installed underneath the internal structural elements, coal should be kept as dry as possible (sprinklers are not recommended), and the dome must be sufficiently ventilated to prevent methane accumulation.<ref name=":3" />
While risks can be managed safely, there are examples of negligence by terminal companies leading to explosions or fires at coal terminals. In particular, a [[Anti-Coal Dust Activism Outside of Hampton Roads|major explosion]] occurred at the CSX coal terminal on December 30, 2021 in the [[Anti-Coal Dust Activism Outside of Hampton Roads|Curtis Bay neighborhood of Baltimore, Maryland]].<ref>Shen, [https://www.baltimorebrew.com/2021/12/30/long-before-todays-explosion-curtis-bay-residents-complained-about-black-grit-from-the-csx-coal-terminal/ Long before Today’s Explosion, Curtis Bay Residents Complained about Black Grit from the CSX Coal Terminal], ''Baltimore Brew'', December 30, 2021.</ref><ref>Kazanjian, [https://baltimorebrew.com/2022/08/27/csx-coal-explosion-impacted-a-large-swath-of-residential-curtis-bay-report-finds/ CSX Coal Explosion Impacted a Large Swath of Residential Curtis Bay], Report Finds, Baltimore Brew, August 27, 2022.</ref><ref>Mosbrucker, [https://www.wypr.org/wypr-news/2022-12-30/one-year-later-a-south-baltimore-communitys-quest-for-no-more-coal One Year Later: A South Baltimore Community’s Quest for ‘No More Coal’], ''WYPR News'', December 30, 2022.</ref> [[Anti-Coal Dust Activism Outside of Hampton Roads|Activists, residents, and health professional in Oakland, California]] argued against a coal export terminal in their community because of the safety risks associated with fully enclosing coal piles.<ref>Public Health Advisory Panel on Coal in Oakland, California, [[:File:7 - Volume VII.pdf|An Assessment of the Health and Safety Implications of Coal Transport through Oakland]], June 14, 2016. </ref>


== Tree Barriers ==
== Tree Barriers ==
Vegetative barriers, which are rows of trees and bushes, have been used to reduce dust downwind of coal mines and other sources.<ref name=":0">[https://www.koreaherald.com/article/3205005 Korean Air Grows Forest in Mongolia], ''The Korea Herald'', September 3, 2023.</ref> Tree barriers are more effective when trees are fully grown, with a barrier of fully-grown trees in one location measured to lowered [[Particulate matter and coal dust|PM<sub>10</sub>]] concentrations by 36%.<ref>Přikryl, [https://dml.cz/handle/10338.dmlcz/703076 Estimate of vegetation efficiency on reducing dust concentration produced by a surface coal mine]. In: Programs and Algorithms of Numerical Mathematics, Proceedings of Seminar. Hejnice, June 24-29, 2018. Institute of Mathematics CAS, Prague, 132–139, 2019. </ref> Multiple rows of trees are more effective than one or two rows, with the type of tree species planted also having an influence.<ref name=":0" /> It stands to reason that vegetative barriers are more effective during seasons when there are leaves than in winter.  
Vegetative barriers, which are rows of trees and bushes, have been used to reduce dust downwind of coal mines and other sources.<ref name=":0">[https://www.koreaherald.com/article/3205005 Korean Air Grows Forest in Mongolia], ''The Korea Herald'', September 3, 2023.</ref> Tree barriers are more effective when trees are fully grown, with a barrier of fully-grown trees in one location measured to lowered [[Particulate matter and coal dust|PM<sub>10</sub>]] concentrations by 30–40%.<ref name=":6" /><ref>Přikryl, [https://dml.cz/handle/10338.dmlcz/703076 Estimate of Vegetation Efficiency on Reducing Dust Concentration Produced by a Surface Coal Mine]. In: Programs and Algorithms of Numerical Mathematics, Proceedings of Seminar. Hejnice, June 24-29, 2018. Institute of Mathematics CAS, Prague, 132–139, 2019. </ref> Multiple rows of trees are more effective than one or two rows, with the type of tree species planted also having an influence.<ref name=":0" /> It stands to reason that vegetative barriers are more effective during seasons when there are leaves than in winter.  


Funds and labor are required not only for tree planting but also for tree maintenance.
Funds and labor are required not only for tree planting but also for tree maintenance.


== Documents ==
== Documents ==
* [[:File:RACM1.pdf|Ohio Office of Air Pollution Control, Reasonably Available Control Measures for Fugitive Dust Sources (Part 1), September 1980]]
* [[:File:RACM2.pdf|Ohio Office of Air Pollution Control, Reasonably Available Control Measures for Fugitive Dust Sources (Part 2), September 1980]]
* [[:File:RACM3.pdf|Ohio Office of Air Pollution Control, Reasonably Available Control Measures for Fugitive Dust Sources (Part 3), September 1980]]
* [[:File:RACM4.pdf|Ohio Office of Air Pollution Control, Reasonably Available Control Measures for Fugitive Dust Sources (Part 4), September 1980]]
* [[:File:Wind Fences and Domes Report Repair Lab 2024 (corrected).pdf|Cowherd et al., Control of Open Fugitive Dust, Final Report to the U.S. EPA, September, 1988]]
* [[:File:Wind Fences and Domes Report Repair Lab 2024 (corrected).pdf|Repair Lab, Coal Dust in Southeast Newport News is a Nuisance and There Are Solution (Corrected), August 2024]]


=== Wind Fences ===
=== Wind Fences ===


*
*[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0032591012004871 Chen et al., 3D Numerical Simulation of Wind Flow behind a New Porous Fence, ''Powder Technology,'' November 2012]
*
*[https://www.powermag.com/fugitive-dust-mitigation-solutions-for-coal-stockpiles/ Larson, Fugitive Dust Mitigation Solutions for Coal Stockpiles, ''Power'', September 1, 2015]
*
*[[:File:MEOct2015-45-52.pdf|Bhowmick et al., Three-Dimensional Modeling of Fugitive Dust Dispersion in Idealized Openpit Mines, ''Mining Engineering'', 2015]]
*[[:File:Coal Quality Management Model for a Dome Storage (DS-CQMM).pdf|Badani Prado, Coal Quality Management Model for a Dome Storage (DS-CQMM), ''Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports'', 5138, 2015]]
*[[:File:W23417.pdf|Jha et al., Handle with Care: The Local Air Pollution Costs of Coal Storage, ''National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series'', May, 2017]]
*[https://theconversation.com/even-when-its-sitting-in-storage-coal-threatens-human-health-80865 Jha, Even When It’s Sitting in Storage, Coal Threatens Human Health, ''The Conversation'', September 13, 2017]
*[https://rop.lv/en/news/impressive-wind-fence-prevent-coal-dust-pollution-under-construction-krievu-island An Impressive Wind Fence to Prevent Coal Dust Pollution is under Construction on Krievu Island, Freeport of Riga, August 30, 2018]
*[https://bellona.org/news/industrial-pollution/2018-09-the-murmansk-commercial-seaport-seeks-to-fence-in-clouds-of-coal-dust Kireeva et al., The Murmansk Commercial Seaport Seeks to Fence in Clouds of Coal Dust, ''Bellona'', September 20, 2018]
*[[:File:021219 Plan Commission Minutes.pdf|City of Oak Creek, Wisconsin, Minutes from the Plan Commission Meeting, February 12, 2019]]
*[https://www.tmj4.com/news/local-news/we-energies-to-build-wind-barrier-in-hopes-of-eliminating-coal-dust Durian, WE Energies to Build Wind Barrier in Hopes of Eliminating Coal Dust, ''TMJ4 WTMJ-TV Milwaukee,'' February 12, 2019]
*[https://www.jsonline.com/story/communities/south/news/oak-creek/2019/02/13/we-energies-build-large-windscreen-combat-coal-dust-oak-creek/2856580002/ Hanley, We Energies to Build Large Windscreen to Combat Coal Dust Issue in Oak Creek, ''Milwaukee Journal Sentinel'', February 13, 2019]
*[https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/murmansk-port-hopes-huge-screens-will-trap-coal-dust Kireeva et al., Murmansk Port Hopes Huge Screens Will Trap Coal Dust, ''The Maritime Executive'', April 11, 2019]
*[https://www.amsj.com.au/using-dry-fog-dust-suppression-and-wind-breaks-to-control-dust/ Using Agglomerative Dust Suppression and Wind Breaks for Fugitive Dust Abatement, ''Australian Mine Safety Journal'', April 17, 2019]
*[https://racinecountyeye.com/2020/01/24/oak-creek-neighbors-renew-coal-dust-concerns-after-fence-falls/ Anderson, Oak Creek Neighbors Renew Coal Dust Concerns after Fence Falls, ''Racine County Eye'', January 24, 2020]
*[[:File:Dust-and-wind-brochure.pdf|WeatherSolve Structures, Productive Environments for All Weathers, 2020]]
*[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S135223102030594X Kim et al., Estimating Fugitive Particle Emission from Coal Storage Yard of Thermal Power Plant Using the Flux-Gradient Method, ''Atmospheric Environment,'' December 2020]
*[[:File:Richmond Settlement Agreement and Exhibits-all signatures.pdf|Settlement Agreement between the City of Richmond, California, and the City Council of the City of Richmond and Levin Richmond Terminal Corporation, Richmond Pacific Railroad Corporation, and Levin Enterprises, Inc., Wolverine Fuels Sales, LLC, Phillips 66 Company, and the State of Utah, 2021]]
*[https://www.weathersolve.com/dust-solutions-coal-ports/ WeatherSolve Structures, Coal Ports Are in Operation Around the World, January 26, 2021]
*[https://www.weathersolve.com/coal-stockpiles-and-btu-losses/ WeatherSolve Structures, Coal Stockpiles and BTU Losses, June 7, 2021]
*[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/9703430 Soares et al., Wind-Fence Efficiency Controlling Particulate Matter Emissions from Coal Stockpiles in an Industrial Site, ''IEEE,'' 2021]
*[[:File:Fugitive-dust-control-best-practices.pdf|U.S. EPA, Fugitive Dust Control Measures and Best Practices, January, 2022]]
*[https://www.bhp.com/news/media-centre/releases/2022/06/bhp-awards-contract-for-australian-first-wind-fences-in-port-hedland BHP, BHP Awards Contract for Australian-First Wind Fences in Port Hedland, June 1, 2022]
*[https://www.gomantaktimes.com/opinion/lets-face-it-coal-is-dirty Almeida, Let's Face it Coal is Dirty, ''Gomantak Times,'' February 11, 2023]
*[[:File:Notes on email correspondence between Mike Robinson of WeatherSolve and Repair Lab team member.pdf|Email Correspondence between Mike Robinson of WeatherSolve and Repair Lab Team Member, 2023]]
*[[:File:Notes on email correspondence between Richard Posner of Dust Solutions.pdf|Email Correspondence between Richard Posner of Dust Solutions, Inc. and Repair Lab Team Member, 2023]]
*[https://www.mining-technology.com/buyers-guide/environment-emissions-dust-control/ Mining Dust Control and Suppression Solutions for the Mining Industry, ''Mining Technology'']
*[https://dustcontroltech.com/products/industrial-wind-fences Dust Control Technologies, Inc., Wind Fencing Gallery]
*[https://nodust.com/solutions/wind-fence/ Dust Solutions, Inc., Wind Fence Dusttamer™ Systems]
*[https://galvanizeit.org/project-gallery/comanches-coal-pile-wind-fence American Galvanizers Association, Comanche's Coal Pile Wind Fence]
*[[:File:2000TI8Z.PDF|Billman et al., Windbreak Effectiveness for Storage-Pile Fugitive-Dust Control: A Wind Tunnel Study, 1985]]


=== Domes ===
=== Domes ===


*
* [https://www.clintonherald.com/news/adm-officials-discuss-coal-dome/article_d4a707e0-89da-5b5a-afa9-2d40dfd419b4.html Holland, ADM Officials Discuss Coal Dome, September 1, 2006]
*
* [https://www.monolithic.org/storages/monolithic-dome-petroleum-coke-storages Monolithic Dome, Monolithic Dome Petroleum Coke Storages with Video of Petcoke Cloud, June 5, 2014]
*
* [https://issuu.com/geometricainc/docs/2014_bulk_storage_brochure__1_ Geometrica, Inc., Bulk Storage Brochure, 2014]
* [https://www.worldcoal.com/handling/10092015/under-the-storage-dome-2838c/ Rowland, Under the (Storage) Dome, ''World Coal'', September 10, 2015]
* [[:File:2016 05 05 MA Modified Manuscript NotMarked.pdf|Aneke, et al., Energy Storage Technologies and Real Life Applications – A State of the Art Review, ''Applied Energy'', 179, 350–377, 2016]]
* [https://www.dometechnology.com/four-reasons-a-dome-is-a-worthy-solution-for-coal-storage/ Dome Technology, Four Reasons a Dome is a Worthy Solution for Coal Storage, January 15, 2019]
* [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12273-020-0700-8 Hou et al., Investigation of Natural Ventilation Performance of Large Space Circular Coal Storage Dome, ''Building Simulation'', 14, 1077–1093, 2021]
* [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1309104221002014?via%3Dihub Cesari et al., Analysis of the Contribution to PM<sub>10</sub> Concentrations of the Largest Coal-Fired Power Plant of Italy in Four Different Sites, ''Atmospheric Pollution Research'', 12, 3, 101135, 2021]
* [[:File:Energies-16-00511-v2.pdf|Woo et al., Reducing Environmental Impact of Coal-Fired Power Plants by Building an Indoor Coal Storage: An Economic Analysis, Energies, 16, 1, 511, 2023]]
* [[:File:Notes on email correspondence between Gary Clark.pdf|Notes on Email Correspondence between Gary Clark of Monolithic Dome and Repair Lab Team Member, February 20, 2024]]
* [[:File:Notes on email correspondence between Hilda Hu.pdf|Notes on Email Correspondence between Hilda Hu (Sales Manager) of SAFS Steel Solutions and Repair Lab Team Member, February 22, 2024]]
* [[:File:Notes on email correspondence between Michelle Team.pdf|Notes on Email Correspondence between Michelle Team of LF-BJMB and Repair Lab Team Member, March 3, 2024]]
* [[:File:Covers-Bulk-Materials-Brochure.pdf|CST Industries, CST Covers: Dry Bulk Storage Systems]]
* [[:File:Global-Solutions-Brochure 2015.pdf|CST Industries, The Global Leader in Storage and Covers Solutions]]
* [https://www.dometechnology.com/projects/adm-coal-storage-clinton-iowa/ Dome Technology, ADM Coal Storage – Clinton, Iowa with Gallery]
* [[:File:DTP06-XXXX-Dome-Technology-project-summary-ADM-Clinton-18.05.10.pdf|Dome Technology, ADM Coal Storage – Clinton, Iowa with Scope of Work and Overview]]
* [https://www.dometechnology.com/projects/hulusu-coal-mine-coal-bulk-storage-china/ Dome Technology, Hulusu Coal Mine – Coal Bulk Storage – China]
* [[:File:Dome-Technology-Project-Summary-China-Coal-China-2017011601.pdf|Dome Technology, Hulusu Coal Mine – Coal Bulk Storage – China with Scope of Work and Overview]]
* [https://www.dometechnology.com/projects/kemper-county-power-plant-lignite-coal-bulk-storage-united-states/ Dome Technology, Kemper County Power Plant – Lignite coal bulk storage – United States]
* [https://www.dometechnology.com/projects/kemper-coal-storage-united-states/ Dome Technology, Kemper County Power Plant – Lignite coal bulk storage – United States with video]
* [https://www.geometrica.com/en/latestnews/making-history Geometrica, Inc., Making History – Bocamina Coal Cover]
* [https://www.geometrica.com/en/latestnews/quayside-storage-domes Geometrica, Inc., Quayside Storage Domes]
* [https://www.geometrica.com/en/latestnews/power-generation Geometrica, Inc., Power Generation: Tai Power's Four Massive Silos]
* [https://www.geometrica.com/en/latestnews/coal-yards Geometrica, Inc., Covers For Coal Yards In Varying Shapes and Sizes]
* [https://www.geometrica.com/en/latestnews/domes-for-asia Geometrica, Inc., The Domes of Asia]
* [https://issuu.com/geometricainc/docs/coal_storage_domes_booklet Geometrica, Inc., Coal Storage Domes Booklet]
* [https://www.geometrica.com/en/latestnews/combat-dust Geometrica, Inc., Combat Dust - Cover Your Stockpile]
* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/geometricainc/albums/72157628489803271/ Geometrica, Inc., Coal Storage, Circular, Longitudinal or Free-Form Domes, ''Flickr'' (80-plus photographs)]
* [https://www.opacengineers.com/projects/LAXT OPAC Consulting Engineers, LAXT Coke Storage Domes, Los Angeles Export Terminal, San Pedro, California (Completed in 1999)]
* [https://www.opacengineers.com/projects/PittsburgDome OPAC Consulting Engineers, Pittsburg Coke Storage Domes, Pittsburg Marine Terminal, Pittsburg, California]
* [[:File:Pittsburg Coke Storage Domes.png|Pittsburg Coke Storage Domes, Google Earth]]
* [https://www.safsteelstructure.com/cases/qingtongxia-aluminum-power-generation-fully-enclosed-coal-shed/?srsltid=AfmBOoq6-Li8pUsNI18J0bXoceP0B_XlCOLMJl61v8rTJQPhWlXFsDPf SAFS Steel Structure, Qingtongxia Aluminum Power Generation Fully Enclosed Coal Shed]


=== Tree Barriers ===
=== Tree Barriers ===


* U.S. EPA, Fugitive Dust Background Document and Technical Information Document for Best Available Control Measures, September 1992
* [[:File:2000JCJE.PDF|U.S. EPA, Fugitive Dust Background Document and Technical Information Document for Best Available Control Measures, September 1992]]


== References ==
== References ==

Latest revision as of 17:57, 4 June 2025

Coal dust can be effectively mitigated with infrastructure, especially wind fences and domes. Wind fences and domes are used in hundreds of locations across the U.S. and around the world. They cost a fraction of a percent of the profits of the companies that operate the coal terminals in Hampton Roads.[1]

Wind Fences

Dust Solutions, Inc. DustTamer Wind Fence Solutions
Dust Solutions, Inc. Wind Fence DustTamerTM Systems[2]

Wind fences reduce windblown dust, also known as fugitive dust,[3] by acting as a windbreak.[4][2][5] A wind fence is constructed on the upwind side of the source, slowing winds as they pass over the coal storage piles (or similar materials). This causes less dust to be uplifted to the atmosphere and, therefore, carried by winds into adjacent neighborhoods.

Wind fences are made of panels of a variety of porous fabrics[6][7] affixed to steel or aluminum posts. If the storage yard is large, a dust collection mechanism may also be required on the downwind side.[8] Wind fences can be added on top of other barriers, for example, in Richmond, California, where a recent settlement mandated putting a wind fence on top of shipping containers that were set in place to serve as a windbreak.[9]

Wind fences are effective: Wind fences have been shown to reduce dust emissions by 70–86% on average.[1][10][11][12][13][14][15] While wind fences reduce windblown dust, they have less impact on fugitive dust from other disturbances to the coal piles such as transloading and dust emitted from vehicle traffic within the terminal.[16]

Wind fences are widely used technology: Wind fences are a common industry technology to mitigate dust around the world. The Repair Lab compiled data on global wind fence use, finding more than 70 locations were using wind fences to reduce dust specifically for coal or petcoke in the U.S. and globally.[1] There are also more than 100 additional locations using wind fences for dust mitigation from the storage of grain, dry clay, clinker, paper, gypsum, limestone, construction, copper, nickel, nitrate, soda ash, bauxite, gold, solar, and steel.[1] Companies that construct wind fences include WeatherSolve Structures, Dust Control Technologies, Inc., and Dust Solutions, Inc.

Costs are negligible compared to company profits: Wind fences are commercially available and can be constructed while the terminals continue to operate normally.[17] Wind fence cost estimates of $4–30 million.[18]

Put into context, Dominion Terminal Associates is a subsidiary of Alpha Metallurgical Resources, which reported $4.1 billion in revenue and $1.45 billion in profits in 2022.[19] Kinder Morgan reported $19.2 billion in revenue and $9.95 billion in profits in 2022.[20] A $4–30 million wind fence is <1% (0.04–0.26%) of their combined 2022 profits and 0.02–0.13% of their combined 2022 revenue.

For a person making $50,000 per year, this is equivalent to $9–64 from one year's wages to protect their community.

Wind fences do not require electricity or a water supply to operate and have minimal maintenance requirements.[21]

Domes

Geomtrica, Inc. Freeform Stockpiles Domes
Geometrica, Inc. Freeform Stockpiles Domes[22]

A dome is a fully enclosed structure over the terminal, including the coal storage piles and transloading equipment. A dome can be made of aluminum panels and galvanized steel and can be an irregular shape.[22][23] Non-porous fabric domes have also been used,[24] although they are more susceptible to weather damage.[25][26]

Domes are effective: Because domes enclose terminal storage areas, they should contain most if not all coal dust produced through terminal activities.[27] There is limited research demonstrating the efficacy of dome structures for dust mitigation, with most references tracing back to a single U.S. EPA contractor’s report, which does not explain key assumptions.[28]

Domes are widely-used: Domes are a common technology for industrial bulk storage. Domes are used specifically for coal or petcoke storage in at least 19 locations in the U.S. and globally. Domes are also used in over 100 locations that include power plants, grain dealers, mines, cement plants, ports, and other industries which stock large quantities of dry bulk materials.[1] Companies that construct domes include Geometrica, Inc.,[29] CST Industries,[30] Dome Technology, SAFS Steel Structure, Monolithic Dome, LF-BJMB, and World Domes (DOMTEC).

Costs are negligible compared to company profits: Domes costs vary and are location specific. For scale, costs reports are $200–500 (Geometrica),[31] $330–370 (LF-BJMB),[27] and $70–120 (SAFS Steel Structure)[32] per square meter covered. Domes can be constructed while terminals operate regularly.[22]

Safety: Coal is combustible. Therefore, enclosed coal storage must be engineered for this risk. Domes must be constructed of non-combustible materials, surfaces where dust settles should be minimized and cladding installed underneath the internal structural elements, coal should be kept as dry as possible (sprinklers are not recommended), and the dome must be sufficiently ventilated to prevent methane accumulation.[29]

While risks can be managed safely, there are examples of negligence by terminal companies leading to explosions or fires at coal terminals. In particular, a major explosion occurred at the CSX coal terminal on December 30, 2021 in the Curtis Bay neighborhood of Baltimore, Maryland.[33][34][35] Activists, residents, and health professional in Oakland, California argued against a coal export terminal in their community because of the safety risks associated with fully enclosing coal piles.[36]

Tree Barriers

Vegetative barriers, which are rows of trees and bushes, have been used to reduce dust downwind of coal mines and other sources.[37] Tree barriers are more effective when trees are fully grown, with a barrier of fully-grown trees in one location measured to lowered PM10 concentrations by 30–40%.[16][38] Multiple rows of trees are more effective than one or two rows, with the type of tree species planted also having an influence.[37] It stands to reason that vegetative barriers are more effective during seasons when there are leaves than in winter.

Funds and labor are required not only for tree planting but also for tree maintenance.

Documents

Wind Fences

Domes

Tree Barriers

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Repair Lab, Coal Dust in Southeast Newport News Is a Nuisance and There Are Solutions (Corrected), August 2024.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Dust Solutions Inc., Wind Fence Dusttamer™ Systems.
  3. ↑ U.S. EPA, Fugitive Dust Control Measures and Best Practices, January, 2022.
  4. ↑ WeatherSolve, Wind Fence Types and Effects.
  5. ↑ City of Oak Creek, Wisconsin, Minutes from the Plan Commission Meeting, February 12, 2019.
  6. ↑ WeatherSolve Structures, Wind Fence Fabric – Which One's Right for You.
  7. ↑ WeatherSolve Structures, Fabric Information for Windbreak/Windfence.
  8. ↑ Email Correspondence between Mike Robinson of WeatherSolve and Repair Lab Team Member, 2023.
  9. ↑ Settlement Agreement between the City of Richmond, California, and the City Council of the City of Richmond and Levin Richmond Terminal Corporation, Richmond Pacific Railroad Corporation, and Levin Enterprises, Inc., Wolverine Fuels Sales, LLC, Phillips 66 Company, and the State of Utah, 2021.
  10. ↑ Cong et al., Impact of the Installation Scenario of Porous Fences on Wind-Blown Particle Emission in Open Coal Yards, Atmospheric Environment, 45, 30, 2011.
  11. ↑ Cong et al., Field Measurements of Shelter Efficacy for Installed Wind Fences in the Open Coal Yard, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 117, 2013.
  12. ↑ Park et al., Verification of the Shelter Effect of a Windbreak on Coal Piles in the POSCO Open Storage Yards at the Kwang-Yang Works, Atmospheric Environment, 36, 13, 2002.
  13. ↑ Stunder et al., Windbreak Effectiveness for Storage Pile Fugitive Dust Control: A wind Tunnel Study, JAPCA, 38, 2, 1988.
  14. ↑ Torno et al., Experimental and Numerical Study of Fence Effects on Dust Emission into Atmosphere from Open Storage Piles, Journal of Central South University, 18, 2011.
  15. ↑ WeatherSolve Structures, Productive Environments for All Weathers, 2020.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Ohio Office of Air Pollution Control, Reasonably Available Control Measures for Fugitive Dust Sources, September 1980.
  17. ↑ Email Correspondence with Richard Posner, President of Dust Solutions Inc., 2023.
  18. ↑ Email Correspondence between Mike Robinson of WeatherSolve and Repair Lab Team Member, 2023.
  19. ↑ United States Securities and Exchange Commission Form 10-K for Alpha Metallurgical Resources, Inc., December 31, 2022.
  20. ↑ Kinder Morgan Revenue 2010–2025 | KMI.
  21. ↑ WeatherSolve Structures, Coal Ports Are in Operation Around the World, January 26, 2021.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Geometrica, Inc., Covers For Coal Yards In Varying Shapes and Sizes.
  23. ↑ Aneke, et al., Energy Storage Technologies and Real Life Applications – A State of the Art Review, Applied Energy, 179, 350–377, 2016.
  24. ↑ W. Va. Town Divided Over Coal Plant Suit, MRT, January 23, 2003.
  25. ↑ The Associated Press, Winds Shred Dome at Boone County Coal Operation, Charleston Gazette-Mail, March 1, 2012.
  26. ↑ Ohio Valley Environmental Coalition, Downed Dome, Again, March 2, 2012.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Notes on Email Correspondence between Michelle Team of LF-BJMB and Repair Lab Team Member, March 3, 2024.
  28. ↑ cite
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Geometrica, Inc., Coal and Pet-coke: The Largest Fuel Stockpiles Can Now Be Covered.
  30. ↑ CST Industries, CST Covers: Dry Bulk Storage Systems.
  31. ↑ Email correspondence between a Repair Lab team member and Fernanda Sanchez of Geometrica, who said: “Regarding the costs, these vary greatly as our designs are customized for each project. They can go from USD $200 to more than $500 per square meter covered.” August 1, 2023.
  32. ↑ Notes on Email Correspondence between Hilda Hu (Sales Manager) of SAFS Steel Solutions and Repair Lab Team Member, February 22, 2024.
  33. ↑ Shen, Long before Today’s Explosion, Curtis Bay Residents Complained about Black Grit from the CSX Coal Terminal, Baltimore Brew, December 30, 2021.
  34. ↑ Kazanjian, CSX Coal Explosion Impacted a Large Swath of Residential Curtis Bay, Report Finds, Baltimore Brew, August 27, 2022.
  35. ↑ Mosbrucker, One Year Later: A South Baltimore Community’s Quest for ‘No More Coal’, WYPR News, December 30, 2022.
  36. ↑ Public Health Advisory Panel on Coal in Oakland, California, An Assessment of the Health and Safety Implications of Coal Transport through Oakland, June 14, 2016.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Korean Air Grows Forest in Mongolia, The Korea Herald, September 3, 2023.
  38. ↑ Přikryl, Estimate of Vegetation Efficiency on Reducing Dust Concentration Produced by a Surface Coal Mine. In: Programs and Algorithms of Numerical Mathematics, Proceedings of Seminar. Hejnice, June 24-29, 2018. Institute of Mathematics CAS, Prague, 132–139, 2019.
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